Understanding sedative effects within the context of acute neuroinflammation in the developing brain: Potential induction of delirium-like behaviors.

Neurologic morbidity is highly prevalent in pediatric critical illness, and the use of benzodiazepines and/or opioids is a risk factor for delirium and post-discharge sequelae. However, little is known about how multidrug sedation with these medications interacts with inflammation in the developing brain, a frequent condition during childhood critical illness that has not been extensively studied. In weanling rats, mild-moderate inflammation was induced with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on postnatal day (P)18 and combined with 3 days repeated opioid and benzodiazepine sedation using morphine and midazolam (MorMdz) between P19-21. Delirium-like behaviors including abnormal response to whisker stimulation, wet dog shakes, and delay in finding buried food were induced in male and female rat pups treated with LPS, MorMdz, or LPS/MorMdz (n ≥ 17/group) and were compared using a z-score composite. Composite behavior scores were significantly increased in LPS, MorMdz, and LPS/MorMdz groups compared to saline control (F3,78 = 38.1, p < 0.0001). Additionally, expression of glial-associated neuroinflammatory markers ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba1) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in western blots of P22 brain homogenate were significantly higher after LPS than after LPS/MorMdz (Iba1, p < 0.0001; GFAP, p < 0.001). Likewise, proinflammatory cytokines were increased in brains of LPS-treated pups versus Saline (p = 0.002), but not LPS/MorMdz-treated pups (p = 0.16). These results are of potential interest during pediatric critical illness, as inflammation is ubiquitous and the effects of multidrug sedation on homeostatic neuroimmune responses need to be considered along with neurodevelopmental effects.

Endogenous and exogenous opioid effects on oligodendrocyte biology and developmental brain myelination.

The elevated presence of opioid receptors and their ligands throughout the developing brain points to the existence of maturational functions of the endogenous opioid system that still remain poorly understood. The alarmingly increasing rates of opioid use and abuse underscore the urgent need for clear identification of those functions and the cellular bases and molecular mechanisms underlying their physiological roles under normal and pathological conditions. This review is focused on current knowledge on the direct and indirect regulatory roles that opioids may have on oligodendrocyte development and their generation of myelin, a complex insulating membrane that not only facilitates rapid impulse conduction but also participates in mechanisms of brain plasticity and adaptation. Information is examined in relation to the importance of endogenous opioid function, as well as direct and indirect effects of opioid analogues, which like methadone and buprenorphine are used in medication-assisted therapies for opioid addiction during pregnancy and pharmacotherapy in neonatal abstinence syndrome. Potential opioid effects are also discussed regarding late myelination of the brain prefrontal cortex in adolescents and young adults. Such knowledge is fundamental for the design of safer pharmacological interventions for opioid abuse, minimizing deleterious effects in the developing nervous system.

Potential Neurodevelopmental Effects of Pediatric Intensive Care Sedation and Analgesia: Repetitive Benzodiazepine and Opioid Exposure Alters Expression of Glial and Synaptic Proteins in Juvenile Rats.

Sedatives are suspected contributors to neurologic dysfunction in PICU patients, to whom they are administered during sensitive neurodevelopment. Relevant preclinical modeling has largely used comparatively brief anesthesia in infant age-approximate animals, with insufficient study of repetitive combined drug administration during childhood. We hypothesized that childhood neurodevelopment is selectively vulnerable to repeated treatment with benzodiazepine and opioid. We report a preclinical model of combined midazolam and morphine in early childhood age-approximate rats. DESIGN: Animal model. SETTING: Basic science laboratory. SUBJECTS: Male and female Long-Evans rats. INTERVENTIONS: Injections of morphine + midazolam were administered twice daily from postnatal days 18-22, tapering on postnatal days 23 and 24. Control groups included saline, morphine, or midazolam. To screen for acute neurodevelopmental effects, brain homogenates were analyzed by western blot for synaptophysin, drebrin, glial fibrillary acidic protein, S100 calcium-binding protein B, ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1, and myelin basic proteins. Data analysis used Kruskal-Wallis with Dunn posttest, with a p value of less than 0.05 significance. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Morphine + midazolam and morphine animals gained less weight than saline or midazolam (p ≤ 0.01). Compared with saline, morphine + midazolam expressed significantly higher drebrin levels (p = 0.01), with numerically but not statistically decreased glial fibrillary acidic protein. Similarly, morphine animals exhibited less glial fibrillary acidic protein and more S100 calcium-binding protein B and synaptophysin. Midazolam animals expressed significantly more S100 calcium-binding protein B (p < 0.001) and 17-18.5 kDa myelin basic protein splicing isoform (p = 0.01), with numerically increased synaptophysin, ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1, and 21.5 kDa myelin basic protein, and decreased glial fibrillary acidic protein. CONCLUSIONS: Analysis of brain tissue in this novel rodent model of repetitive morphine and midazolam administration showed effects on synaptic, astrocytic, microglial, and myelin proteins. These findings warrant further investigation because they may have implications for critically ill children requiring sedation and analgesia.

Endogenous opioid peptides and brain development: Endomorphin-1 and Nociceptin play a sex-specific role in the control of oligodendrocyte maturation and brain myelination.

The generation of fully functional oligodendrocytes, the myelinating cells of the central nervous system, is preceded by a complex maturational process. We previously showed that the timing of oligodendrocyte differentiation and rat brain myelination were altered by perinatal exposure to buprenorphine and methadone, opioid analogs used for the management of pregnant addicts. Those observations suggested the involvement of the µ-opioid receptor (MOR) and the nociceptin/orphanin FQ receptor (NOR). However, it remained to be determined if these receptors and their endogenous ligands could indeed control the timing of myelination under normal physiological conditions of brain development. We now found that the endogenous MOR ligand endomorphin-1 (EM-1) exerts a striking stimulatory action on cellular and morphological maturation of rat pre-oligodendrocytes, but unexpectedly, these effects appear to be restricted to the cells from the female pups. Critically, this stimulation is abolished by coincubation with the endogenous NOR ligand nociceptin. Furthermore, NOR antagonist treatment of 9-day-old female pups results in accelerated brain myelination. Interestingly, the lack of sex-dependent differences in developmental brain levels of EM-1 and nociceptin, or oligodendroglial expression of MOR and NOR, suggests that the observed sex-specific responses may be highly dependent on important intrinsic differences between the male and female oligodendrocytes. The discovery of a significant effect of EM-1 and nociceptin in the developing female oligodendrocytes and brain myelination, underscores the need for further studies investigating brain sex-related differences and their implications in opioid use and abuse, pain control, and susceptibility and remyelinating capacity in demyelinating disease as multiple sclerosis.

Dynamics of sphingolipids and the serine palmitoyltransferase complex in rat oligodendrocytes during myelination.

Myelin is a unique lipid-rich membrane structure that accelerates neurotransmission and supports neuronal function. Sphingolipids are critical myelin components. Yet sphingolipid content and synthesis have not been well characterized in oligodendrocytes, the myelin-producing cells of the CNS. Here, using quantitative real-time PCR, LC-MS/MS-based lipid analysis, and biochemical assays, we examined sphingolipid synthesis during the peak period of myelination in the postnatal rat brain. Importantly, we characterized sphingolipid production in isolated oligodendrocytes. We analyzed sphingolipid distribution and levels of critical enzymes and regulators in the sphingolipid biosynthetic pathway, with focus on the serine palmitoyltransferase (SPT) complex, the rate-limiting step in this pathway. During myelination, levels of the major SPT subunits increased and oligodendrocyte maturation was accompanied by extensive alterations in the composition of the SPT complex. These included changes in the relative levels of two alternative catalytic subunits, SPTLC2 and -3, in the relative levels of isoforms of the small subunits, ssSPTa and -b, and in the isoform distribution of the SPT regulators, the ORMDLs. Myelination progression was accompanied by distinct changes in both the nature of the sphingoid backbone and the N-acyl chains incorporated into sphingolipids. We conclude that the distribution of these changes among sphingolipid family members is indicative of a selective channeling of the ceramide backbone toward specific downstream metabolic pathways during myelination. Our findings provide insights into myelin production in oligodendrocytes and suggest how dysregulation of the biosynthesis of this highly specialized membrane could contribute to demyelinating diseases.

Novel role of the nociceptin system as a regulator of glutamate transporter expression in developing astrocytes.

Our previous results showed that oligodendrocyte development is regulated by both nociceptin and its G-protein coupled receptor, the nociceptin/orphanin FQ receptor (NOR). The present in vitro and in vivo findings show that nociceptin plays a crucial conserved role regulating the levels of the glutamate/aspartate transporter GLAST/EAAT1 in both human and rodent brain astrocytes. This nociceptin-mediated response takes place during a critical developmental window that coincides with the early stages of astrocyte maturation. GLAST/EAAT1 upregulation by nociceptin is mediated by NOR and the downstream participation of a complex signaling cascade that involves the interaction of several kinase systems, including PI-3K/AKT, mTOR, and JAK. Because GLAST is the main glutamate transporter during brain maturation, these novel findings suggest that nociceptin plays a crucial role in regulating the function of early astrocytes and their capacity to support glutamate homeostasis in the developing brain.

The opioid system and brain development: effects of methadone on the oligodendrocyte lineage and the early stages of myelination.

Oligodendrocytes express opioid receptors throughout development, but the role of the opioid system in myelination remains poorly understood. This is a significant problem as opioid use and abuse continue to increase in two particular populations: pregnant addicts (in whom drug effects could target early myelination in the fetus and newborn) and adolescents and young adults (in whom late myelination of 'higher-order' regions takes place). Maintenance treatments for opioid addicts include the long-lasting opioids methadone and buprenorphine. Similar to our previous findings on the effects of buprenorphine, we have now found that early myelination in the developing rat brain is also altered by perinatal exposure to therapeutic doses of methadone. Pups exposed to this drug exhibited elevated brain levels of the 4 major splicing variants of myelin basic protein, myelin proteolipid protein, and myelin-oligodendrocyte glycoprotein. Consistent with the enrichment and function of these proteins in mature myelin, analysis of the corpus callosum in these young animals also indicated an elevated number of axons with already highly compacted myelin sheaths. Moreover, studies in cultured cells showed that methadone exerts direct effects at specific stages of the oligodendrocyte lineage, stimulating the proliferation of progenitor cells while on the other hand accelerating the maturation of the more differentiated but still immature preoligodendrocytes. While the long-term effects of these observations remain unknown, accelerated or increased oligodendrocyte maturation and myelination could both disrupt the complex sequence of synchronized events leading to normal connectivity in the developing brain. Together with our previous observations on the effects of buprenorphine, the present findings further underscore a crucial function of the endogenous opioid system in the control of oligodendrocyte development and the timing of myelination. Interference with these regulatory systems by opioid use or maintenance treatments could disrupt the normal process of brain maturation at critical stages of myelin formation.

Oligodendrocyte responses to buprenorphine uncover novel and opposing roles of µ-opioid- and nociceptin/orphanin FQ receptors in cell development: implications for drug addiction treatment during pregnancy.

Although the classical function of myelin is the facilitation of saltatory conduction, this membrane and the oligodendrocytes, the cells that make myelin in the central nervous system (CNS), are now recognized as important regulators of plasticity and remodeling in the developing brain. As such, oligodendrocyte maturation and myelination are among the most vulnerable processes along CNS development. We have shown previously that rat brain myelination is significantly altered by buprenorphine, an opioid analogue currently used in clinical trials for managing pregnant opioid addicts. Perinatal exposure to low levels of this drug induced accelerated and increased expression of myelin basic proteins (MBPs), cellular and myelin components that are markers of mature oligodendrocytes. In contrast, supra-therapeutic drug doses delayed MBP brain expression and resulted in a decreased number of myelinated axons. We have now found that this biphasic-dose response to buprenorphine can be attributed to the participation of both the µ-opioid receptor (MOR) and the nociceptin/orphanin FQ receptor (NOP receptor) in the oligodendrocytes. This is particularly intriguing because the NOP receptor/nociceptin system has been primarily linked to behavior and pain regulation, but a role in CNS development or myelination has not been described before. Our findings suggest that balance between signaling mediated by (a) MOR activation and (b) a novel, yet unidentified pathway that includes the NOP receptor, plays a crucial role in the timing of oligodendrocyte maturation and myelin synthesis. Moreover, exposure to opioids could disrupt the normal interplay between these two systems altering the developmental pattern of brain myelination.

Novel forms of neurofascin 155 in the central nervous system: alterations in paranodal disruption models and multiple sclerosis.

Stability of the myelin-axon unit is achieved, at least in part, by specialized paranodal junctions comprised of the neuronal heterocomplex of contactin and contactin-associated protein and the myelin protein neurofascin 155. In multiple sclerosis, normal distribution of these proteins is altered, resulting in the loss of the insulating myelin and consequently causing axonal dysfunction. Previously, this laboratory reported that mice lacking the myelin-enriched lipid sulphatide are characterized by a progressive deterioration of the paranodal structure. Here, it is shown that this deterioration is preceded by significant loss of neurofascin 155 clustering at the myelin paranode. Interestingly, prolonged electrophoretic separation revealed the existence of two neurofascin 155 bands, neurofascin 155 high and neurofascin 155 low, which are readily observed following N-linked deglycosylation. Neurofascin 155 high is observed at 7 days of age and reaches peak expression at one month of age, while neurofascin 155 low is first observed at 14 days of age and constantly increases until 5 months of age. Studies using conditional neurofascin knockout mice indicated that neurofascin 155 high and neurofascin 155 low are products of the neurofascin gene and are exclusively expressed by oligodendrocytes within the central nervous system. Neurofascin 155 high is a myelin paranodal protein while the distribution of neurofascin 155 low remains to be determined. While neurofascin 155 high levels are significantly reduced in the sulphatide null mice at 15 days, 30 days and 4 months of age, neurofascin 155 low levels remain unaltered. Although maintained at normal levels, neurofascin 155 low is incapable of preserving paranodal structure, thus indicating that neurofascin 155 high is required for paranodal stability. Additionally, comparisons between neurofascin 155 high and neurofascin 155 low in human samples revealed a significant alteration, specifically in multiple sclerosis plaques.

Sphingosine-1-phosphate and oligodendrocytes: from cell development to the treatment of multiple sclerosis.

Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is a bioactive sphingolipid that mediates a wide variety of biological effects in different cells and tissues. This review discusses the effects of S1P signaling in oligodendrocytes, the myelin making cells of the central nervous system (CNS). Results from different laboratories have uncovered direct actions of S1P at different maturational stages along the oligodendroglial lineage. There is also evidence for the existence in oligodendrocytes of interactions between S1P and signaling by factors which, like neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), have profound effects on oligodendrocyte development and myelination. Moreover, S1P signaling in oligodendrocytes may not only play an important role during normal CNS development but also offer new therapeutic avenues to stimulate remyelination in demyelinating diseases like multiple sclerosis.

FTY720 reduces inflammation and promotes functional recovery after spinal cord injury.

A robust and complex inflammatory cascade is known to be a prominent component of secondary injury following spinal cord injury (SCI). Specifically, the concept of trauma-induced autoimmunity has linked the lymphocyte population with neural tissue injury and neurologic deficit. FTY720, a sphingosine receptor modulator that sequesters lymphocytes in secondary lymphoid organs, has been shown to be effective in the treatment of a variety of experimental autoimmune disorders. Accordingly, by reducing lymphocyte infiltration into the spinal cord following SCI, this novel immunomodulator may enhance tissue preservation and functional recovery. In the present study, a moderate to severe contusion SCI was simulated in adult Long-Evans hooded rats. Using flow cytometry we showed that daily FTY720 treatment dramatically reduced T-cell infiltration into the SCI lesion site at 4 and 7 days post-injury, while other inflammatory cell populations were relatively unaltered. To assess functional recovery, three groups of injured animals (treated, vehicle, and injury only) were evaluated weekly for hindlimb recovery. Animals in the treated group consistently exhibited higher functional scores than animals in the control groups after 2 weeks post-injury. This finding was associated with a greater degree of white matter sparing at the lesion epicenter when cords were later sectioned and stained. Furthermore, treated animals were found to exhibit improved bladder function and a reduced incidence of hemorrhagic cystitis compared to control counterparts. Collectively these results demonstrate the neuroprotective potential of FTY720 treatment after experimental SCI.

Neurotrophin-3 targets the translational initiation machinery in oligodendrocytes.

Neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) regulates oligodendrocyte (OLG) differentiation by mechanisms that remain poorly understood. Exposure of OLGs to NT-3 induces a significant increase in the levels of myelin basic protein (MBP). However, we found that this stimulation occurs in the absence of measurable effects on MBP gene promoter activation or mRNA expression, suggesting that NT-3 upregulates MBP protein expression by a posttranscriptional mechanism. Furthermore, NT-3 also causes an increase in the levels of myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG) and myelin OLG glycoprotein (MOG), raising the possibility of a more general effect on myelin protein synthesis. Surprisingly, (35)S-methionine incorporation into total OLG proteins demonstrated a 50% increase in labeling following only a brief, 15-min treatment with NT-3. Such a remarkably fast response is unlikely due to transcriptional activation, reinforcing the possibility that NT-3 may play a crucial role in regulating protein expression by a posttranscriptional mechanism. In support of this idea, we found that NT-3 stimulates the phosphorylation of essential regulators of the initiation machinery, eukaryotic initiation factor 4E (eIF4E), and its inhibitory binding partner 4E binding protein 1 (4EBP1), two crucial players in controlling cap-dependent protein synthesis. This stimulation involves the activation of pathways mediated by ERK1/2 and PI3K/mTOR, implicating these two kinase systems as modulators of protein synthesis in developing OLGs. Altogether, these observations show for the first time that NT-3 has the capacity of targeting the translational machinery and suggest a potential stimulatory effect of this neurotrophin on myelination by direct action on protein translation in the OLGs.

Opioid addiction and pregnancy: perinatal exposure to buprenorphine affects myelination in the developing brain.

Buprenorphine is a mu-opioid receptor partial agonist and kappa-opioid receptor antagonist currently on trials for the management of pregnant opioid-dependent addicts. However, little is known about the effects of buprenorphine on brain development. Oligodendrocytes express opioid receptors in a developmentally regulated manner and thus, it is logical to hypothesize that perinatal exposure to buprenorphine could affect myelination. To investigate this possibility, pregnant rats were implanted with minipumps to deliver buprenorphine at 0.3 or 1 mg/kg/day. Analysis of their pups at different postnatal ages indicated that exposure to 0.3 mg/kg/day buprenorphine caused an accelerated and significant increase in the brain expression of all myelin basic protein (MBP) splicing isoforms. In contrast, treatment with the higher dose caused a developmental delay in MBP expression. Examination of corpus callosum at 26-days of age indicated that both buprenorphine doses cause a significant increase in the caliber of the myelinated axons. Surprisingly, these axons have a disproportionately thinner myelin sheath, suggesting alterations at the level of axon-glial interactions. Analysis of myelin associated glycoprotein (MAG) expression and glycosylation indicated that this molecule may play a crucial role in mediating these effects. Co-immunoprecipitation studies also suggested a mechanism involving a MAG-dependent activation of the Src-family tyrosine kinase Fyn. These results support the idea that opioid signaling plays an important role in regulating myelination in vivo and stress the need for further studies investigating potential effects of perinatal buprenorphine exposure on brain development.

The immunomodulator FTY720 has a direct cytoprotective effect in oligodendrocyte progenitors.

The immunomodulator 2-amino-2-[2-(4-octylphenyl)ethyl]-1,3-propanediol (FTY720) has promising therapeutic effects in multiple sclerosis (MS), a degenerative disease in which demyelination of the central nervous system is accompanied by death of oligodendrocytes (OLGs), the myelin-producing cells. In vivo phosphorylation of FTY720 generates an agonist for G protein-coupled receptors for sphingosine-1-phosphate, a lipid mediator that plays a crucial role in the stimulation of OLG survival by neurotrophin-3 (NT-3). The mechanisms underlying the action of FTY720 in MS are not clearly understood, although the effects of this drug in autoimmune diseases are thought to stem from its ability to reduce lymphocyte infiltration and inflammation. Interestingly, we now found that FTY720 also has a direct effect on OLG progenitors. Treatment of these cells with FTY720 causes activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 and Akt, accompanied by protection from apoptosis. However, FTY720 also arrested OLG differentiation. Importantly, this effect was counteracted by NT-3, which not only enhanced the survival of OLG progenitors induced by FTY720 but also stimulated their maturation. Altogether, these observations suggest that in addition to its immunosuppressive functions, FTY720 could also have a beneficial effect in MS by direct action on OLG progenitors. However, the finding that FTY720 blocks the differentiation of these cells raises the question of whether MS therapies with FTY720 should include the use of differentiation-enhancing factors such as NT-3. This approach would ensure both protection of existing OLG progenitor pools against immune-mediated insults as well as stimulation of remyelination by enhancing the maturation of these cells.

Novel role of sphingosine kinase 1 as a mediator of neurotrophin-3 action in oligodendrocyte progenitors.

We had found previously that neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) is a potent stimulator of cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB) phosphorylation in cultured oligodendrocyte progenitors. Here, we show that CREB phosphorylation in these cells is also highly stimulated by sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), a sphingolipid metabolite that is known to be a potent mediator of numerous biological processes. Moreover, CREB phosphorylation in response to NT-3 involves sphingosine kinase 1 (SphK1), the enzyme that synthesizes S1P. Immunocytochemistry and confocal microscopy indicated that NT-3 induces translocation of SphK1 from the cytoplasm to the plasma membrane of oligodendrocytes, a process accompanied by increased SphK1 activity in the membrane fraction where its substrate sphingosine resides. To examine the involvement of SphK1 in NT-3 function, SphK1 expression was down-regulated by treatment with SphK1 sequence-specific small interfering RNA. Remarkably, the capacity of NT-3 to protect oligodendrocyte progenitors from apoptotic cell death induced by growth factor deprivation was abolished by down-regulating the expression of SphK1, as assessed by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL) assay. Altogether, these results suggest that SphK1 plays a crucial role in the stimulation of oligodendrocyte progenitor survival by NT-3, and demonstrate a functional link between NT-3 and S1P signaling, adding to the complexity of mechanisms that modulate neurotrophin function and oligodendrocyte development.

Neurotrophin-3 and a CREB-mediated signaling pathway regulate Bcl-2 expression in oligodendrocyte progenitor cells.

Our previous results suggested that the transcription factor CREB mediates the actions of neuroligands and growth factor signals that coupled to different signaling pathways may play different roles along oligodendrocyte (OLG) development. We showed before that CREB phosphorylation in OLG progenitors is up-regulated by neurotrophin-3 (NT-3); and moreover CREB is required for NT-3 to stimulate the proliferation of these cells. We now show that treatment of OLG progenitors with NT-3 is also accompanied by an increase in the levels of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2. Interestingly, the presence of a putative CREB binding site (CRE) in the Bcl-2 gene raised the possibility that CREB could also be involved in regulating Bcl-2 expression in the OLGs. Supporting this hypothesis, the NT-3 dependent increase in Bcl-2 levels is abolished by inhibition of CREB expression. In addition, transient transfection experiments using various regions of the Bcl-2 promoter and mutation of the CRE site indicate a direct role of CREB in regulating Bcl-2 gene activity in response to NT-3. Furthermore, protein-DNA binding assays show that the CREB protein from freshly isolated OLGs indeed binds to the Bcl-2 promoter CRE. Together with our previous results, these observations suggest that CREB may play an important role in linking proliferation and survival pathways in the OLG progenitors.

Different mechanisms for loss and recovery of binocularity in the visual cortex.

Diverse molecular mechanisms have been discovered that mediate the loss of responses to the deprived eye during monocular deprivation. cAMP/Ca2+ response element-binding protein (CREB) function, in particular, is thought to be essential for ocular dominance plasticity during monocular deprivation. In contrast, we have very little information concerning the molecular mechanisms of recovery from the effects of monocular deprivation, even though this information is highly relevant for understanding cortical plasticity. To test the involvement of CREB activation in recovery of responses to the deprived eye, we used herpes simplex virus (HSV) to express in the primary visual cortex a dominant-negative form of CREB (HSV-mCREB) containing a single point mutation that prevents its activation. This mutant was used to suppress CREB function intracortically during the period when normal vision was restored in two protocols for recovery from monocular deprivation: reverse deprivation and binocular vision. In the reverse deprivation model, inhibition of CREB function prevented loss of responses to the newly deprived eye but did not prevent simultaneous recovery of responses to the previously deprived eye. Full recovery of cortical binocularity after restoration of binocular vision was similarly unaffected by HSV-mCREB treatment. The HSV-mCREB injections produced strong suppression of CREB function in the visual cortex, as ascertained by both DNA binding assays and immunoblot analysis showing a decrease in the expression of the transcription factor C/EBPbeta, which is regulated by CREB. These results show a mechanistic dichotomy between loss and recovery of neural function in visual cortex; CREB function is essential for loss but not for recovery of deprived eye responses.

Recovery of adult oligodendrocytes is preceded by a "lag period" accompanied by upregulation of transcription factors expressed in developing young cells.

Cell cultures prepared from oligodendrocytes directly obtained from adult rat brain are composed of mature cells that lose their cell processes and myelin membrane during their isolation and therefore represent a very useful model to investigate the factors that could stimulate their recovery. We have observed that mature oligodendrocytes isolated from adult animals remain as round cells that lack processes for the first 3-4 days in culture. At the end of this lag period, however, the majority of the adult oligodendrocytes show a remarkable recovery, rapidly growing complex and extensive cell processes. Interestingly, the end of this lag period is accompanied by a dramatic upregulation in the expression of thyroid hormone (T(3)) receptor (TR). The functional importance of this increase in TR levels is supported by the observation that the majority of the cells cultured in the presence of T(3) show significantly more extensive and complex process outgrowth than the control cells in cultures lacking this hormone. In addition, this reactivation of the adult cells was also preceded by an increased expression of glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and cyclic AMP-response element binding protein (CREB), two transcription factors that together with TR appear to play important roles in the control of neonatal oligodendrocyte development. Thus, it is possible to hypothesize that upregulation of these proteins may be part of the metabolic changes that occur during the lag period required for recovery of the adult oligodendrocytes. These observations raise the question of whether these transcription factors may play any significant role during remyelination after demyelinating lesions of adult CNS.